Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain Neurons

1 BIOLOGY 2404 Institutional affiliation Course Name Date 2 1. Trace the flow of filtrate from the renal capsule to the urethra The renal capsule consists of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule. The filtrate then passes over the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), where the bulk of reabsorption occurs. It then passes through the descending and ascending limbs of the Loop of Henle, creating the countercurrent multiplier gradient that will allow urine to be concentrated in the collecting duct. From the Loop of Henle, filtrate enters the distal convoluted tubule for final reabsorption before entering the collecting duct and being transported to the bladder. 2.

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Describe the blood flow through the kidney, starting at the renal artery and ending at the renal vein. The renal artery divides into segments, and blood flows in each segment. The blood flows through the interlobar artery, then to the arcuate artery, then into an interlobular artery. The interlobular artery then branches into other arterioles, supplying blood to the nephron. These arterioles then branch to form ball-like capillaries called the glomerulus. Blood is drawn from the glomerulus by the efferent arterioles into peritubular capillaries, then drained into interlobular veins, arcuate vein, then interlobar vein. Lastly, blood is drained into the renal vein. 3. List the percent absorptive or secretion of sodium, potassium, water, bicarbonate, and glucose for different nephron regions. Sodium is 65% absorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule, 25% in the loop of Henle, 5% in the distal convoluted tubule, and 5% in the collecting duct. Potassium is reabsorbed by 65% in the proximal convoluted tubule and 20% in the loop of Henle. Water is absorbed 67% in the proximal convoluted tubule, 15 % in the circle of Henle, and 8% in the distal convoluted 3 tubule. Bicarbonate is 80 to 90% reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule, and lastly, glucose is 100 % reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule. 4. Describe the filtration membrane. What does it allow and not allow filtering through (in healthy conditions) The filtration membrane of the nephron is the microporous obstacle of polymeric, ceramic, or metallic constituents used to separate dissolved components (solutes), colloids, or minute particulate from solutions. It permits the passage of water and refuses blood cells and large proteins to pass. 5. Define the terms 1. Renal cortex This is the outer portion of the kidney located in the renal capsule and the renal medulla. 2. Renal Pyramids This part of the kidney constitutes the medulla or the inner portion of the kidney. 3. Renal Columns Renal Columns are the medullary extension of the renal cortex in between the renal pyramids. Its function is to allow the cortex to be better attached. 4. Renal Sinus The renal sinus is the hollow in the kidney occupied by the renal pelvis, renal calyces, blood vessels, nerves, and fat. 5. Major Calyx The major calyx which environs the tip of the Malpighian pyramids 4 6.

Minor Calyx A minor calyx is the portion of the kidney that environs the renal papillae of each of the pyramids and accumulates urine from that pyramid 7. Renal medulla The renal medulla is the innermost portion of the kidney 8. Ureters The ureters are ducts composed of smooth muscle that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. 6. Define the following terms: 1. Autosomes An autosome is any of the chromosomes that are not a sex chromosome. 2. Sex Chromosomes Sex chromosomes are the chromosomes that determine the gender of a species. 3. Gametes Gametes are the organs that contain reproductive cells. 4. Gonads Gonads are the main reproductive organs and testes in males and ovaries in females. 5. Meiosis This is a kind of cell division that would eventually lead to the production of sex sells. 5 6. Mitosis This is a special type of cell division that leads to the formation of two identical daughter cells. 7. Sertoli Cells These are special cells found in the testes and are responsible for spermatogenesis and testis formation. 8. Haploid Haploid cells constitute a single set of chromosomes. 9. Diploid This is the presence of two complete sets of chromosomes, each of the parents has donated each chromosome.

7. Starting with One Cell, describe and draw the process of Meiosis I in males and females (they have different results). How many viable cells are there for the male and the female. At the end of Meiosis I? 6 8. Describe in detail the process of spermatogenesis, including cells involved and time length. Spermatogenesis encompasses a sequence of cell stages and divisions by which the diploid spermatogonial cells develop into primary spermatocytes via mitosis. Main spermatocytes in the basal part of Sertoli cells go through Meiosis to yield haploid secondary spermatocytes in the adluminal section of Sertoli cells in a procedure known as spermatocytogenesis. This procedure allows the cells to possess a unique genomic identity within the population of secondary spermatocytes and consequent emerging cells. After spermatocytogenesis, spermatids extend to produce spermatozoa through spermatogenesis, a morphological development phase in which the nuclear transformations involving chromatin remodeling and compaction occur. Spermatozoa then leave the Sertoli cells through the lumen of the seminiferous tubules, exit through the rete testis, and enter the epididymis for f final maturation.

This is where spermatozoa acquire motility and acrosomal function. Spermatogenesis in the human male takes about 74 days. 9. Describe where sperm are stored and all the ducts and ampullae that it traverses on their way out. Sperms are stored in the epididymis, which is a cord-like structure. The male reproductive cells are pushed through the vas deferens when males ejaculate. The seminal vesicles add fluids before the vas deferens transports the sperm to the ejaculatory vessels, which join the urethra inside the prostate gland. 10. Describe the three glands: their secretions, composition of fluids, the volume of secretions, the functions, and the ducts traversed during male ejaculation. Seminal Vesicles 7 They are saccular glands posterior to the urinary bladder. Every gland has a tiny duct that links with the ductus deferens at the ampulla to produce an ejaculatory channel, which drains into the urethra.

The liquid from the seminal vesicles is viscous. It comprises fructose, which offers an energy foundation for the sperm and proteins that provide minor coagulation responses in the semen after ejaculation. Human seminal vesicle glands contribute between 70% and 85% of ejaculate volume (Kierszenbaum et al., 2011). The prostate gland is a steady and solid structure positioned just inferior to the urinary bladder. It encircles the urethra as it leaves the urinary bladder. Numerous short ducts from the substance of the prostate gland empty into the prostatic urethra. Finally, Bulbourethral Glands are generally small, about the dimension of a pea, and situated close to the base of the penis. A short tube from every gland goes into the proximal end of the penile urethra. In reaction to sexual stimulation, the bulbourethral glands discharge an alkaline mucus-like fluid. This fluid counterbalances the acidity of the urine residue in the urethra, helps to neutralize the acidity of the vagina and provides some lubrication for the tip of the penis during sex. 11. Define the following: 1. Uterus Uterus, also known as the womb, is the hallow and pear-shaped organ in the female reproductive organ responsible for maintaining pregnancy. 2. Cervix This is the narrow end of the uterus that allows the passage of sperms. 3. Fallopian tubes Also called oviducts are tubes that stretch from the ovaries to the womb and function as a carrier of female eggs from the ovaries to the uterus. 8 4. Fimbriae This allows non-motile eggs produced by the female during ovulation reaches to the fallopian tube. 5.

Endometrium The endometrium is simply the lining of the uterus wall. 6. Follicle A follicle is a sac-like structure in the female reproductive organ that carries the developing ovule. 7. Corpus Luteum This is hormone synthesis machinery in the female reproductive organ. 12. Describe the process of Oogenesis to the Graafian follicle and secondary oocyte. Include hormones involved in this process. The process of Oogenesis is completed in three phases. The first phase is known as the antral phase. Antral Stage A watery occupied spaces form among the granulosa cells and ultimately combines and forms a dominant fluid-filled space known as the antrum. We now refer to the follicles as secondary follicles. In every monthly cycle, any of these secondary follicles become dominant and develop further under Follicle Stimulating Hormone, Luteinizing Hormone, and oestrogen.

Pre-Ovulatory Stage 9 The Luteinizing Hormone surge induces this phase, and meiosis one is now accomplished. Within the follicle, two irregularly sized haploid cells form. Single daughter cells obtain limited cytoplasm than the other and develop into the first polar body that will not develop into an ovum. The other haploid Cell created is identified as the secondary oocyte. Individually, all the daughter cells undergo Meiosis II. The first polar body will make a copy to generate two polar bodies, but the secondary oocyte is stopped in the metaphase phase of Meiosis II. This occurs three hours before ovulation. Ovulation Here the follicle has developed in size and is mature, and it is now called a Graafian follicle. The Luteinizing Hormone flow occurs and upsurges collagenase activity.

This is an enzymatic function that upsets collagen. Hence, there is a weakening of the follicular wall combined with muscular contractions of the ovarian wall, leading to the ovum being released from the ovary. The ovum is then taken up into the fallopian tube via the fimbriae. 13. Describe the ovulation process, the hormone involved, and what is released into the Fallopian tube (It isn’t just the oocyte). At what stage of Meiosis is the secondary oocyte? What is the life expectancy of the secondary oocyte? When the estrogen level is at its peak, a surge of Luteinizing Hormone and Follicle Stimulating hormones are released from the brain’s pituitary gland. This lasts for either 1 or 2 days before the follicle erupts and discharges the ovules from the ovary through the fallopian tube. The discharge of the ovules happens due to Luteinizing Hormone, which permits the follicle to synthesize proteolytic enzymes that deterio rate the soft tissues near the blister of the follicle, eventually creating a hollow known as the stigma. Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain Neurons

The ovule is now bounded by the cumulus cells, the cumulus-oocyte complex. The egg then travels into the peritoneal hollow and attaches 10 to the fimbriae at the end of the oviduct; and it is pushed alongside the duct by cilia, and it slowly journeys towards the womb. Consequently, the ovule goes through Meiosis to produce two different cells, one holds cytoplasmic materials, and the second possesses an inactive polar figure. The second phase of Meiosis occurs, but the process is not as the ovules stack in metaphase until fertilization. If it is not fertilized, the ovules will degenerate within 24 hours. The uterine mucous tissue is at its peak size with endometrial glands that are still non-secretory. 14. When do females from all their ova (eggs)? At the stage of Meiosis, I am halted? Can the lifestyle choices of a person’s grandmother potentially impact the genetics of her grandchildren? All females are born with the eggs they will possess in their entire lifetime. In Meiosis I, the oocytes go into the dormant or resting phase in prophase 1. The lifestyle choices of one’s grandparents could influence the genetic makeup of their grandchildren. For instance, their diet could alter the DNA and genetic material passed on to their grandchildren. 15. What happens to the remainder of the Graafian follicle after ovulation? Does it perform any role in pregnancy? If so, what? During ovulation, the Graafian follicle disintegrates and releases the eggs. When ovulation is completed, the Graafian follicle is converted into corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone. Therefore it has a role in pregnancy as the hormone progesterone aids in preparing females for pregnancy. 16. Describe what happens when a sperm fertilizes the secondary oocyte. Read the textbook and notes carefully. The process is not straightforward. The secondary oocytes are created after the primary oocytes undergo Meiosis I. The second stage of Meiosis continues, but only incompletely. The secondary oocytes will be stopped at 11 the phase of metaphase II of Meiosis II till fertilization occurs. Hence, when the sperm cell fertilizes the eggs, the secondary oocyte quickly finalizes the remaining phases of Meiosis II, producing an ootid and an ovum, which the sperm cell unites with. 17. Describe the blastocysts, when and where it implants, and what must occur for the mother’s immune system Not to destroy it. The blastocyst is an embryo stage that is characterized by actively dividing cells. Blastocysts then attach themselves to the uterus through its zona pellucida. The attachment process is initiated approximately five to six days after fertilization. 12 References Sharma, R., & Agarwal, A. (2011). Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain Neurons

Spermatogenesis: an overview. Sperm chromatin, 19-44. Kierszenbaum, A. L., Rivkin, E., Tres, L. L., Yoder, B. K., Haycraft, C. J., Bornens, M., & Rios, R. M. (2011). GMAP210 and IFT88 are present in the spermatid Golgi apparatus and 13 participate in developing the acrosome–acroplaxome complex, head-tail coupling apparatus, and tail. Developmental Dynamics, 240(3), 723-736. Biology questions Student’s Name Institutional Affiliations Course Number & Name Professor’s Name Submission Due Date Biology questions 1. Describe the laws of Dalton and Boyle and their significance for respiration The relationship between volume and pressure during intake and exhale serves as a demonstration of Boyle’s law. Pressure decreases and volume rises during inhalation, whereas the opposite occurs during exhalation. With Dalton’s law, a person’s total atmospheric pressure is defined by the percentage of each gas in the air that they would breathe at any given time. Therefore, it is possible to breathe in the same gas concentration as the surrounding air. Their relative concentrations also determine how gases pass through the alveolar membrane (Solomon, 2015). It follows that Henry’s law may be applied to the process of respiration by detailing how oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are exchanged in pulmonary gas exchange. A direct correlation between alveolar air’s oxygen partial pressure and blood oxygen concentration is therefore established. 2. Describe the main structures and functions of the conductive zone and the respiratory system. The essential functions of the conductive zone are to provide a path for arriving and exiting air, filter out garbage and viruses that may be introduced into the system, and warm and humidify incoming air. Additional functions are provided by many structures located inside the conducting zone. For example, the nasal epithelium is essential for odour perception, and the bronchial epithelium that covers the lungs can digest some carcinogens in the air breathed in. 3. List two muscles of quiet inspiration and five of forced inspiration. Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain Neurons

The diaphragm and the external intercostals are the main muscles that help the body breathe—nothing you can do to help your body with normal expiration when relaxed. The elastic recoil of your lungs and surface tension make it happen. The internal intercostals, the intercostalis intimi, the subcostals, and the abdominal muscles, which make up the intercostals and the abdominal muscles, are some of the muscles that help one breathe forcefully. 4. Describe the numerous mechanisms in your respiratory system naturally designed to keep your alveoli clean. There are numerous. Why has your body spent energy in these cleansing mechanisms? Breathing is made up of three separate processes: · Getting air into and out of the lungs (ventilation) · exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen (diffusion) · blood moves through the lungs (perfusion Even though the alveoli are tiny, they are the heart of one’s respiratory system’s gas exchange. The alveoli take in energy (oxygen) and get rid of waste products (carbon dioxide). One’s blood moves oxygen from the alveoli to the blood vessels (capillaries) in the alveolar walls and back to the alveoli. These small alveolar structures, when put together, make up a lot of space for breathing, both at rest and while exercising(West, 2012). They cover more than 1,076.4 square feet (100 square meters). This vast surface area is needed to handle the enormous amounts of air needed to breathe and get oxygen to the lungs. It is how much air you breathe each minute: An individual takes in about 5 to 8 litres of air each minute. Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain Neurons

A person at rest breathes in about 0.33 pounds of oxygen every minute, about 10.1 ounces (0.3 litres). When one breathes, the diaphragm and other muscles help to put pressure inside the chest so that one can move air in and out of the body. Muscles make a negative pressure when one inhales. This pressure is lower than the pressure in the room. It helps you breathe in because it makes your muscles work harder; their lungs contract and return to their normal size when one breathes out. 5. List the partial pressures (in mmHg) of the three gases: N2, O2 And CO2 in the A.in atmosphere, we cannot calculate in mm of hg. But in the atmosphere, the air has 78%-nitrogen (720 mm of Hg) ,21%-O2 (140 mm of Hg) And 0.04%-CO2. (40 mm of Hg). B.in alveolus:- N2- 0.78 mm of Hg. O2-100 mm of Hg. CO2-40 mm of Hg. C.in arteries O2- 95 mm of Hg e. What are the two dominant gases in the Earth’s atmosphere? As the most prevalent elements, nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) make up around 78 and 21 per cent of dry air, respectively (O2). Other gases, such as argon, carbon dioxide (CO2), and a host of others, can be found in very small quantities, making up less than one per cent of the total gaseous content. Water vapour is also present in the atmosphere. 6. Describe the effects of increased H2 CO and temperature on the ability of oxygen binding on hemoglobin. Of what benefit is this design for a person. Increased metabolic activity in tissues produces CO2 as a metabolic waste product. It causes an increase in PCO2 levels in tissues, which causes an increase in hydrogen ions (H+) and a decrease in pH(Piantadosi, 2002). Hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen will be reduced, increasing the risk of dissociation. Hemoglobin releases oxygen from its binding sites as oxygen partial pressures increase. Protons (H+ ions) connecting to amino acids in hemoglobin cause a conformational alteration in the protein, reducing the oxygen-binding sites’ affinity. An increase in H+ reduces oxygen’s ability to bind to hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, lowering blood pH and prompting hemoglobin proteins to release oxygen. Hemoglobin loses its ability to bind oxygen when CO2 increases (Piantadosi, 2002). Lowering CO2 raises blood pH, allowing hemoglobin to take up more oxygen. So reducing CO2 enhances oxygen binding to hemoglobin. The chemical bond between oxygen and hemoglobin weakens as temperature rises, increasing dissociation. As with increased skeletal muscle activity, elevated temperatures reduce hemoglobin’s oxygen affinity. Because of this, rising temperatures reduce oxygen binding to hemoglobin.

7. List the exact order of flow of unabsorbed food starting at the mouth and ending in the anus (the alimentary canal). List all region’s sphincters and valves through which the unabsorbed food passes. Food passes through the digestive system in the following order: § Mouth § Esophagus § Stomach § The small intestine § Colon (large intestine) § Rectum 8. List the same ducts through which the flow of bile and pancreatic juice traverses as it flows out of the Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder. List any sphincters. Use modern and classical terminology. Intrahepatic bile Intrahepatic bile ducts pass via the liver. It connects to the left and right hepatic ducts. Right and left lobes of the liver. Intrahepatic bile duct carcinoma is covered in the liver cancer chapter. Extrahepatic bile Extrahepatic bile ducts lie outside the liver. the exterior section of the RH and LH and the CHD and CBD. (The cystic duct is outside the liver, yet cystic duct tumours are gallbladder cancers.) Perihilar bile That part of the liver where the hepatic ducts meet to form the common hepatic duct. It also contains the cystic duct and the common hepatic duct. Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain Neurons

The proximal extrahepatic bile ducts are named from their closeness to the liver. Bile duct extrahepatic This is the common bile duct. It lies between the cystic and common hepatic ducts and the ampulla of Vater, away from the liver (but does not include these structures). 9. Describe the four layers of the Alimentary canal going inward to outward. Each level of the gastrointestinal system has a distinct function. The tissues and functions of each layer are distinct. The mucosa, submucosa, muscular, and serosa are all referred to from the inside out. The mucosa is the deepest layer of the body’s gastrointestinal tract where absorption and secretion processes occur. A thin layer of connective tissue sits on top of the epithelial cells that make up the lining (Solomon, 2015). The mucosa of the gastrointestinal system contains goblet cells, which create sticky mucus. Submucosa- The mucosa is supported by the submucosa, a thick, irregular layer of connective tissue. Blood, lymphatic, and nerve arteries are all found here. Mus culature- One of only two GI organs with three layers of muscle, the stomach muscular is remarkable. Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain Neurons

Below these muscle layers, the adventitia—connective tissue layers connected to the omenta—are situated below these muscle layers. Serosa- Secretory epithelium and thin connective tissue layers form the serosa, a buffer between the muscles and the surrounding tissues. 10. Describe the anatomy of the stomach Stomachs are divided into five distinct regions (Tortora & Derrickson, 2018): The cardia is placed near the diaphragm at the very top of the stomach. It contains the cardiac sphincter, which prevents food from returning up your throat. The fundus is a circular region next to the heart. It is located beneath the diaphragm (the domeshaped muscle that helps you breathe). The corpus is the most significant portion of their stomach. Meals are mixed when the stomach contracts in the body. The antrum is positioned in the abdomen’s bottom region. Until the stomach is prepared to convey the food to the small intestine, it is storing it in the stomach. The pylorus is located near the bottom of your stomach. Included is the pyloric sphincter. This ring of tissue controls the transit of stomach contents into the small intestine at predetermined periods and in specific manners. 11. Define these terms and wherein the digestive system they are located a. Reggae Rugae are a series of ridges formed by folding an organ’s wall. Rugae are most frequently referred to as the gastric rugae on the stomach’s inside surface.

One function of the gastric rugae is to allow stomach enlargement following food and drink ingestion. The expansion results in an increase in surface area, which aids in nutrient absorption. Additionally, it expands the stomach’s capacity, allowing it to store a greater amount of food. b. G cells- A gastrin-secreting cell type in the stomach and duodenum is known as a G cell or gastrin cell in anatomy. Gastric chief cells and parietal cells act in concert with this system to achieve its goals. On rare occasions, g cells can be discovered deep within the stomach antrum’s pyloric glands and in the pancreas and the duodenum. c. Chief cells- Chief cells are the other type of exocrine secretory cell found in the stomach. They secrete digestive enzymes that aid in the breakdown of proteins in food. The primary cell secretes pepsin as an inactive enzyme called pepsinogen. d. Parietal cells- Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factors are secreted by stomach epithelial cells known as parietal cells (oxyntic cells). They are present in the stomach, the gastric glands’ fundus, and body areas. e. Intestinal villi- Villi are little, finger-like extensions of cells that run the length of a person’s small intestine. Villi (villus singular, villi plural) collect nutrients from the food one ingest and then transport them to one’s bloodstream. f. Plicae circular- one of many permanent crescentic folds of mucous membrane found throughout the small intestine, notably at the bottom of the duodenum and jejunum — also known as valvula connivens g. Microvilli- Microvilli (plural: microvillus) are small cellular membrane protrusions that enhance the surface area for diffusion while minimizing volume gain. They are engaged in various processes, including absorption, secretion, cellular adhesion, and mechanotransduction. 12. Describe the function of the pancreas if food digestion and neutralization of pH in the duodenum . According to Bett et al. (2013), to digest food, one pancreas creates pancreatic enzymes, natural secretions generated by the organ. Ducts in your pancreas convey these juices. Their eventual destination is the duodenum, positioned at the small intestine’s top. Your pancreas generates about 8 ounces of digestive juice, enzyme-rich, every day. All the enzymes may be found here: Lipase. This enzyme works in cooperation with bile generated by the liver to break down dietary fat. Lipase is an enzyme required to absorb lipids and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) (A, D, E, K). Diarrhea and fatty bowel movements are indicators of insufficient fat absorption. Protease. This enzyme breaks down proteins in their diet. Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain Neurons

It also protects you from hazardous germs and yeast hiding in your digestive tract. Some people may develop allergic reactions to a protein that is not digested. Amylase. This enzyme is critical in converting carbs to sugar for energy generation. Undigested carbohydrates could produce diarrhea if one lacks amylase. References Betts, J. G., Young, K. A., Wise, J. A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D. H., … & DeSaix, P. (2013). Anatomy and physiology. Piantadosi, C. A. (2002). Biological chemistry of carbon monoxide. Antioxidants and Redox Signaling, 4(2), 259-270. Solomon, E. P. (2015). Introduction to human anatomy and physiology. Elsevier Health Sciences. Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. H. (2018). Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain

Principles of anatomy and physiology. John Wiley & Sons. West, J. B. (2012). Respiratory physiology: the essentials. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 1 Biology 2404 Assignment II Student Name Institution Affiliation Course Name and Number Instructor’s Name Due Date 2 Biology 2404 Assignment II 1. Give a function for the below organelles and structures. a) Nucleus – the nucleus is the largest double-membraned organelle present in all eukaryotic cells. The nucleus is dark and spherical shaped within the nuclear membrane. Within the nucleus are small spherical-shaped structures called the nucleolus. The main function of the nucleus is to act as the control center for cellular activity. It is also the center where all the elements of the cell’s DNA are stored. b) Golgi Apparatus – The Golgi Apparatus is also referred to as the Golgi Complex. This is a membrane-bound organelle made up mostly of cisternae, which are stacked, flattened, stacked pouches. The cell organelle is in charge of delivering, modifying, and packing proteins and lipids to specific locations. The Golgi Apparatus is a structure found in the cytoplasm of both animals and plants cells (Bartelds & Poolman, 2018). c) Lysosome – A lysosome is a membrane-bound organelle found within a cell. It contains digestive enzymes that break down unwanted or worn-out cell components. The digestive enzyme is sometimes used to kill harmful pathogens within the cell and throughout the body. d) Mitochondria – Mitochondria are described as the powerhouse of a cell. The mitochondria are organelles with a sausage-like shape present in all eukaryotic cells. They contain energy-rich compounds and power up the body. e) The cytoskeleton is a prolonged web of filamentous proteinaceous components extending from the nucleus to the plasma membrane within the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is found within all living cells but is most abundant in eukaryotes (Bartelds & Poolman, 2018). Within the cytoskeleton is a matrix composed of various proteins that may dismantle or 3 break down quickly based on the requirements of the cells. Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain Neurons

The contractile characteristic of the filaments helps in movement and during cytokinesis, and they offer mechanical resistance and structure to the cell against deformation. f) Plasma membrane – Cell Membrane and Cytoplasmic Membrane are other terms for the plasma membrane. It’s a lipid bilayer and proteins-based selectively permeable cell membrane. The plasma membrane is found in both plant and animal cells and serves as a selectively permeable membrane, allowing certain materials to enter and leave the cell as needed. The cell membrane gives form to an animal cell and protects the cell’s interior contents. g) Rough Endoplasmic reticulum – They are made up of tubules, cisternae, and vesicles, which may be found throughout the cell and play a role in protein production. 2. Describe and explain the main components of the Fluid Mosaic Model and their role in the maintenance of cell functions and hence the existence of life. The Fluid Mosaic Model depicts the structure of cell membranes, which are made up of a flexible lipid layer and big protein molecules that act as mediums for other molecules to enter and leave any cell. The membrane constituents, such as proteins and glycolipids, create a mobile patchwork in the fluid-like environment formed by a pool of phospholipids (Bartelds & Poolman, 2018). Lateral mobility is restricted, and subdomains inside the cell membrane have different purposes. Intrinsic and external proteins are the two forms of globular proteins. The extrinsic protein detaches from the membrane because it is soluble. The innate protein is insoluble and partly entrenched on the outer or inner side of the bilayer, where it participates in lipid bilayer lateral diffusion (Jiang, 2020). The fluidity of the membrane’s lipid matrix allows the 4 membrane’s elements to move laterally. The hydrophobic interactions of proteins and lipids are to blame. A variety of membrane activities are dependent on fluidity. 3. List and explain in detail what Passive and Active Transport are. List and explain in detail three examples for both Passive and Active Transport and why the cell would spend energy constructing these membrane proteins. Active transport is defined as the movement of molecules across the cell membrane from a site of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration against a concentration gradient. Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain Neurons

This process typically aided by enzymes and requires energy. The movement of molecules and ions from across the cell membrane without energy is referred to as passive transport. The two primary biological processes that give oxygen, nutrients, water, and other essential molecules to cells, eliminating waste materials, are examples of activities that utilize active and passive transport. Active and passive transportation have the same purposes, but they move in different ways. Active transport includes the mineral ion absorption by plant roots, sodium-potassium pump, etc. The gaseous exchange in the alveoli and the transfer of substances in the kidneys are instances of passive transport (Bartelds & Poolman, 2018). The entry and exit of ions and molecules in a cell are regulated by active and passive transport. These processes enable just specified elements to go through the cell membrane randomly. To travel across the membrane, the others need a carrier. 4. In precise detail, explain the Four Phases of Mitosis. This does Not include Interphase Mitosis is when cells multiply and duplicate themselves by replicating their DNA and dividing their chromosomes into two sets. Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase are the four or 5 five separate stages of mitosis (Crncec & Hochegger, 2019). Critical activities are carried out at each step of the process required for cell replication and division. Prophase and metaphase prepare the mother cell for division, whereas anaphase or telophase kicks off the primary cell division process. During prophase, the cell begins to prepare for division by establishing particular organelles and structures.

Within the nucleus, the chromosomes begin to condense. The purpose of chromosomal condensing is to make it simpler to split chromosomes later in the cell division process. The mitotic spindle is also formed by the cell. Microtubules between the two centrosomes make up the mitotic spindle, which organizes the chromosomes throughout mitotic division (Crncec & Hochegger, 2019). The nuclear envelope around the nucleus breaks down in the second part of the prophase (also known as prometaphase). The chromosomes are then released into the cytoplasm of the cell. The centrosome-to-centrosome spindle will then extend and begin grabbing the chromosomes. Because the chromosomes have completed condensing, they are now perfectly compressed. The microtubules capture the chromosomes in the spindle, which attach to them at the kinetochore. The spindle fibers have already linked with the chromosomes and structured them into a line in the center of the cell when metaphase starts. The chromosomes have reached the point where they can be divided. Each chromosome’s two kinetochores should be linked to microtubules on opposing sides of the cell. The cell passes through a procedure known as the spindle checkpoint, which checks whether the sister chromatids will split along the center as they should. After the chromatids have realigned in the cell’s center, they sit on the metaphase plate in anaphase. Once that two centrosomes

Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain

Protective Mechanisms Used to Protect Brain Neurons